The Lost Paradise
|
Samson Kamson
This article reconstructs the historical trajectory of the Zeliangrong people from their ancestral origin at Makuilongdi to their lost southern settlements in Manipur. It critically examines how patterns of migration, Kuki incursions, colonial interventions, and intra-tribal discord contributed to territorial disintegration and cultural displacement. Drawing upon oral traditions, folklore, and archival sources, the article underscores the Zeliangrong community’s enduring resilience and collective memory, reflecting a persistent quest for identity, continuity, and renewal within their ancestral landscape.
Several philologists, anthropologists, writers, and historians have identified South-Western China as the probable homeland of the tribal peoples of North East India. However, certain folklore and ritual hymns of the Zeliangrong suggest that their mythical place of origin was ‘Mahou/Mahau Taobei’—a cave or hole from which their ancestors are said to have emerged.
According to Zeliangrong belief, their forebears came forth when the Guaichang (mithun or Bos frontalis) pulled away the stone slab that blocked the cave. Some Zeliangrong legends locate this sacred place somewhere near Ramting Kabin—the northern part of the present Liangmai village of Oklong—and Makhel in the Senapati district of Manipur. The specific site of Taobei remains a place of mystery.
Another version asserts that the Zeliangrong people settled in their present homeland after a long migratory journey during which they crossed the Duika (White River). The precise identity of the river remains uncertain. Some hypothesize it to be either the Chindwin or the Brahmaputra River, according to Namthuibuiyang Pamei, in his book The Trail from Makuilongdi.
Most of the southern Naga tribes believe that they once lived together at Makhel before their dispersal to various territories. Another version claims that the Zeliangrong Nagas first settled in the Imphal Valley, but, due to the ‘Kengkhui Duidai’ (a great flood or submersion by a vast body of water), they shifted their habitation to the hills, naming their new settlement ‘Loichingh’ or ‘Loichingh Namdaih’, before departing for Makhel. From there, they migrated to other places such as Ramting Kabin, Chawang Phungning or Guang Phungning, and finally to Makuilongdi or Nkuilongdi, where the Zeliangrong civilization began to flourish.
For many generations, the people lived prosperously in Makuilongdi. Oral tradition records the number of households at 7,777. The village Khangchu/Khang-chiu/Hangseoki (male dor- mitories) and Luseoki/Luchu/Kailu (female dormitories) multiplied as the population increased. Yet, the village’s long era of peace and prosperity eventually ended with a great exodus in different directions, as communities sought more fertile and virgin lands to inhabit. The Zeliangrong people thus spread to the NC Hills of present-day Assam; the regions of Tening, Peren, Jalukie, and Poilwa in Nagaland; and to Sylhet in Bangladesh (where it is said that Malangpa, a Zeliangrong village, still stands near the border of Meghalaya and Sylhet). They also expanded southward beyond the Duigai or Tuivai/Tipai (in Lushai) and Maga Rivers.
Zeliangrong traditions acknowledge that there were numerous skirmishes between their ancestors and alien tribes during their expansion toward the southern regions of present-day Manipur.
The Zeliangrong forefathers fought valiantly against all adversaries who sought to hinder their migration. These successive struggles were led by the Liangtong/Liamtong—notable figures such as Tunaning Dangmei of Lungchi, Bansaina Kamei of Changkhak, Goubena Longmei of Chingtiang, Dinbaopu Longmei of Peiriam, Maodetdai Dang-mei of Dangkhonglong, Lupongpou and Mugong-pou of Montha, Pou- duongonang Gonmei of Pungsan Kaithi, and Keimaliang. These valiant warriors overcame numerous obstacles, defending their respective villages with indomitable courage.
Among the heroic narratives still celebrated today is the tale of Jamlennang Gonmei of Agupang/Ahu-pang, whose bravery remains immortalized in Zeliangrong folk songs. After a prolonged series of conflicts, the Zeliangrong ancestors and their adversaries—the Koumei, Rongramei, Tasenmei, and Lushais—concluded a mutual peace treaty at a place called Phaina Ditiang (Mirongmun in Lushai), a site of great historical importance in Zeliangrong tradition. From that moment, the Duigai/Tuivai River was recognized by both parties as their boundary.
According to legend, the Zeliangrong forefathers planted a bamboo sapling upside down on the riverbank, praying to Tingkao Ragwang/Tingwang (the Heavenly God) to make the bamboo thorny as a divine sign of His consent to the boundary. Since that time, the place has been known as Pei Kasao Thao—“the place of thorny bamboos.” After this treaty, Rangkat became the southernmost post of Ze-liangrong territory. Jurui- nang (Liangtong/Liamtong) was also born in this region, though during his lifetime no evidence of renewed conflict with other hill tribes was recorded.
The fertile soil, rich biodiversity, majestic mountain ranges, perennial rivers, and temperate climate sustained the Zeliang- rong ancestors, enabling them to live in relative peace and prosperity in the region for centuries. The society flourished once more, much as it had in Makuilongdi, regarded as the cradle of Zeliangrong culture. However, this long-standing harmony was violently disrupted by the incursion of Kuki migrants—described in historical accounts as a wandering people who first appeared in Manipur between 1830 and 1840, though related groups had long been subjects of the Raja of Manipur—who forcibly invaded and destroyed Zeliangrong settlements.
Zeliangrong history in that era was fundamentally village-based. They practiced a republican form of governance in which each village functioned as an autonomous State. Deeply attached to their villages, the people seldom abandoned their ancestral sites, for these lands were sacred to them—containing the graves of their forefathers. Their communal life was vibrant and spiritually rooted, but interaction between villages was limited. Suspicion and envy often characterized inter- village relations, and the darkness of mistrust prevailed beyond the village perimeters.
Frequent ‘Shangnah Rih’ (inter-village feuds) led to disunity and the absence of coordinated defense or solidarity among Zeliangrong settlements. This internal discord provided an opportunity for the nomadic Kuki clans to exert incursion over Zeliangrong territories. Many villages were burned, and countless lives were lost.
Villages that were destroyed, deserted, or renamed during the Kuki penetration and occasional Lushai raids include Daluan as Daron/Khanpi (Thadou), Montha Kaidai as Phaizang (Gangte/Vaiphei), Montha Kaithi (Gangte), Lungtan as Songpibung (Gangte), Ningthi Sanlangthen (deserted), Laolongpung as Lailong (Haokip), Pungsaanmei as Phaibung, Dongkang as Bartubung (Thadou), Napphao as Napphou (Haokip), Julon/Majumron or Koureilon (Haokip), Thangaang as Nathenbok (Haokip), Rongsoutao as Phaikholum (Thadou), Jinthiang (Chiru), Chaang Khek as Santing, Lungchi (deserted), Phainaditiang as Mirongmun (Simte), Raangkat (deserted), Lungnulong (deserted), Kaingumgailong, Longdai-jang, Neikanlong, Duilumlong, Jadimlong, Kanailong as Aina, Chakaang as Seichang, Chinglangmei, Longsai (Chiru), Taodaijang as Songsang (Singson), Sangkao (deserted), Amang Goikhaotiang as Konlhian, Dangkhonglong as Thei-rikpal, Kaimaenglaeng, Changkaibut, Lamri, Tan-long, Khathipang, Chapang as Noupanglon (Thadou), Sinainham, Monphei, Mongang, Tharon, Anen-khundi, Taoliam, Lung- noibut, Maidung Kadang, Tingpui, Peiliam/Peika-saothao as Munlian, Ching- tiang, Tenglong, Tingmun, and Loisihbutlong as Mamuong (Haokip).
Some of these ancient villages were later renamed when the displaced inhabitants founded new settlements, most of which are now found in the Henglep and Nungba sub-divisions of Manipur. The continuity of names reflects both a remembrance of the lost homeland and an enduring bond between the old and the new settlements. According to R Brown, Zeliangrong villages were once located at a distance of three or four days’ journey south of the present National Highway 37 (then 53), but due to the Kuki invasion and Lushai raids, these settlements were evacuated. In contemporary times, the farthest surviving villages lay only three or four hours’ journey from the highway on the southern side.
Zeliangrong tradition affirms that the southern region of Manipur was once a veritable paradise for the Zeliangrong people. Many legendary and historical culture heroes were born and perished in this region. Among the most celebrated was the romantic poet, adventurer, and singer Gairemnang of Montha—a flourishing village of the time that served as a resting point for warriors during their southern expansion and as a strategic checkpoint against Kuki and Lushai incursions in the nineteenth century. Raja Gambhir Singh of Manipur even attacked Montha in 1827. Gairemnang’s charisma and the sweet, melodious strains of his Raah (tribal violin) captivated people across the land. Folklore recounts that the fringes where the sound of his music reached experienced a sweeter taste in their Gan-kariak (edible wild leaves), and every village he visited became vibrant with life and excitement. Some Zeliangrong folk songs suggest that Gairemnang journeyed as far as Tiddim (Duidim/Duidimlong) in the Chin Hills of Burma. The heart-rending love story of Gairemnang and Guiliannei, and the tragic end of Gairemnang’s life, are still sung today. He was believed to be one of six individuals chosen by Tingwang/Tingkao Ragwang to become the Makam King, and ‘Parechiang’ was his divine name.
Equally remembered talented and graceful women of this region—Guiliannei, Gainemnei, Zilhainei, and renowned seasonal song composers such as Tajinpei of Lungnulong, Gaichongnei of Daluan, Khujamnei of Jinthiang, Donsingnei of Dongkang, and Shingak, whose poetic legacies continue to enrich Zeliangrong oral culture.
Zeliangrong mythology also recalls the lawgiver Amang/Amangbou, from Daluan (Daron), known for his adjudication duties to all living beings who attended the great feast of Kariudungbo/Joubhubo/Jouruhmei organized by him. Guided by his sister’s wisdom, Amangbou became the world’s richest man, married the daughter of a deity, and attained immortality. To this day, the Zeliangrong people visit the cave believed to have been his dwelling in Daluan (Daron), now located in the Henglep Sub-division of Churachandpur District, Manipur.
The Moirang Kangleiron also records a notable Zeliangrong historical personality—Ramngampou or Parapu (known to the Meiteis as Kabui Salang Maiba), a gifted and generous healer from Ningthi (Salangthel)—in some accounts, Tingpui—of this region. His role is immortalized in the Manipuri epic Khamba and Thoibi. Ramngampou’s name endures in ballads and hymns still recited by Meitei priests and medicine men, some of whom continue to use incantations composed by him in the Zeliangrong dialect. He was both guardian and protector of Khamba and his sister Khamnu, supporting Khamba morally and physically during his contest with a nobleman for the hand of Princess Thoibi—a challenge Khamba ultimately won.
The vast territory discovered and cultivated by the sweat and blood of the Zeliangrong ancestors was eventually seized by outsiders. Intruders became settlers, while the indigenous people were pushed out of their ancestral domains. Even today, the deserted villages of the southern region retain megaliths and relics that stand as silent witnesses to Zeliangrong habitation. During that era, Zeliangrong villages existed as independent units, each cherishing its autonomy. They never conceived of forming a common political entity, and consequently, they failed to defend their sacred lands. Many thus abandoned their homes, migrating in multiple directions. Some groups crossed the Duigai (Duilun or Duirih, Tuivai/Tipai) River into Mizoram (Lushai Hills), others moved into the borderlands of Bangladesh and Meghalaya, while the remaining groups retraced the ancient routes of their forefathers.
The Zeliangrong forefathers expanded their domain with courage and fortitude, seeking new lands for their descendants to inherit. The scenic grandeur of the mountain ranges, the cool, refreshing breezes, the melodious chorus of wild creatures, and the gentle murmurs of the rivers gradually faded as they journeyed farther and farther, uncertain of ever returning, amid the perils posed by incoming peoples. The rights over their vast and fertile forest lands were abruptly usurped by nomadic groups, whose arrival brought suffering upon the natives and shattered their once contented existence. The joyous rhythms of seasonal festivities gave way to broken hearts and the lingering scent of innocent blood. For the Zeliangrong Nagas, the land where one’s placenta is buried signifies belonging; thus, countless placentas and the sacred remains of their ancestors still lie unattended in the south-western region, silent witnesses to their departure and loss.
The principal causes for the loss of the south-western Zeliangrong territory during the latter half of the nineteenth century were:
1. Kuki invasion – the Kukis, unable to withstand the Lushais’ pressure entered Zeliangrong territory in search of cultivable land and settlement;
2. Policies of the British authorities and the Meitei Raja – both encouraged Kuki habitation as a strategic means to consolidate their political interests.
Furthermore, the inter-village feuds among Zeliangrong settlements greatly weakened their unity, allowing aggressors to exert firm influence. Some Zeliangrong villages that came under Kuki domination were forced to pay a Chengshiou (a form of tax). Although this was not an acknowledgment of subservience, it was a pragmatic measure to avoid hostilities. The tribute was usually paid in paddy. At times, it consisted of animal flesh taken from the back of beasts sacrificed during festivals.
After enduring uncountable atrocities at the hands of the Kukis, the British authorities, and the Meiteis, a transformation gradually occurred in the Zeliangrong consciousness during the Kuki Rebellion (1917-1919). In the late 1920s, a young mystic leader, Haipou Jadonang, emerged. Deeply moved by the sufferings of his people, he launched a socio-religious movement aimed at uniting the Zeliangrong people of kindred tribes, reforming the primordial faith, and protecting traditional customs and culture. Jadonang believed that emotional and spiritual integration could only be achieved through religion, as faith governed the moral and social fabric of individual lives. Through the introduction of the reformed religion Charaa Rek, Jadonang sparked a profound transformation among the Zeliangrong people, laying the groundwork for a political awakening. He envisioned the restoration of freedom and dignity to the people. He rekindled the long-lost bond of oneness and revived the ancient dream of unity and self-determination—a dream later continued by Rani Gaidinliu, his spiritual and political successor.
Today, that aspiration of living together under one roof appears far more attainable than in the past provided the Zeliangrong people remain steadfast in solidarity. The past lessons must serve as a guiding flame for collective progress. The territorial threat from external forces will continue to linger unless neighboring communities renounce their political pursuits of expansion and nation- building. The Zeliangrong people, therefore, must draw strength from their shared past and unwaveringly uphold the unity and spirit of their ancestors to safeguard the legacy entrusted to them.
The writer is a Social Worker based at New Delhi
This article reconstructs the historical trajectory of the Zeliangrong people from their ancestral origin at Makuilongdi to their lost southern settlements in Manipur. It critically examines how patterns of migration, Kuki incursions, colonial interventions, and intra-tribal discord contributed to territorial disintegration and cultural displacement. Drawing upon oral traditions, folklore, and archival sources, the article underscores the Zeliangrong community’s enduring resilience and collective memory, reflecting a persistent quest for identity, continuity, and renewal within their ancestral landscape.
Several philologists, anthropologists, writers, and historians have identified South-Western China as the probable homeland of the tribal peoples of North East India. However, certain folklore and ritual hymns of the Zeliangrong suggest that their mythical place of origin was ‘Mahou/Mahau Taobei’—a cave or hole from which their ancestors are said to have emerged.
According to Zeliangrong belief, their forebears came forth when the Guaichang (mithun or Bos frontalis) pulled away the stone slab that blocked the cave. Some Zeliangrong legends locate this sacred place somewhere near Ramting Kabin—the northern part of the present Liangmai village of Oklong—and Makhel in the Senapati district of Manipur. The specific site of Taobei remains a place of mystery.
Another version asserts that the Zeliangrong people settled in their present homeland after a long migratory journey during which they crossed the Duika (White River). The precise identity of the river remains uncertain. Some hypothesize it to be either the Chindwin or the Brahmaputra River, according to Namthuibuiyang Pamei, in his book The Trail from Makuilongdi.
Most of the southern Naga tribes believe that they once lived together at Makhel before their dispersal to various territories. Another version claims that the Zeliangrong Nagas first settled in the Imphal Valley, but, due to the ‘Kengkhui Duidai’ (a great flood or submersion by a vast body of water), they shifted their habitation to the hills, naming their new settlement ‘Loichingh’ or ‘Loichingh Namdaih’, before departing for Makhel. From there, they migrated to other places such as Ramting Kabin, Chawang Phungning or Guang Phungning, and finally to Makuilongdi or Nkuilongdi, where the Zeliangrong civilization began to flourish.
For many generations, the people lived prosperously in Makuilongdi. Oral tradition records the number of households at 7,777. The village Khangchu/Khang-chiu/Hangseoki (male dor- mitories) and Luseoki/Luchu/Kailu (female dormitories) multiplied as the population increased. Yet, the village’s long era of peace and prosperity eventually ended with a great exodus in different directions, as communities sought more fertile and virgin lands to inhabit. The Zeliangrong people thus spread to the NC Hills of present-day Assam; the regions of Tening, Peren, Jalukie, and Poilwa in Nagaland; and to Sylhet in Bangladesh (where it is said that Malangpa, a Zeliangrong village, still stands near the border of Meghalaya and Sylhet). They also expanded southward beyond the Duigai or Tuivai/Tipai (in Lushai) and Maga Rivers.
Zeliangrong traditions acknowledge that there were numerous skirmishes between their ancestors and alien tribes during their expansion toward the southern regions of present-day Manipur.
The Zeliangrong forefathers fought valiantly against all adversaries who sought to hinder their migration. These successive struggles were led by the Liangtong/Liamtong—notable figures such as Tunaning Dangmei of Lungchi, Bansaina Kamei of Changkhak, Goubena Longmei of Chingtiang, Dinbaopu Longmei of Peiriam, Maodetdai Dang-mei of Dangkhonglong, Lupongpou and Mugong-pou of Montha, Pou- duongonang Gonmei of Pungsan Kaithi, and Keimaliang. These valiant warriors overcame numerous obstacles, defending their respective villages with indomitable courage.
Among the heroic narratives still celebrated today is the tale of Jamlennang Gonmei of Agupang/Ahu-pang, whose bravery remains immortalized in Zeliangrong folk songs. After a prolonged series of conflicts, the Zeliangrong ancestors and their adversaries—the Koumei, Rongramei, Tasenmei, and Lushais—concluded a mutual peace treaty at a place called Phaina Ditiang (Mirongmun in Lushai), a site of great historical importance in Zeliangrong tradition. From that moment, the Duigai/Tuivai River was recognized by both parties as their boundary.
According to legend, the Zeliangrong forefathers planted a bamboo sapling upside down on the riverbank, praying to Tingkao Ragwang/Tingwang (the Heavenly God) to make the bamboo thorny as a divine sign of His consent to the boundary. Since that time, the place has been known as Pei Kasao Thao—“the place of thorny bamboos.” After this treaty, Rangkat became the southernmost post of Ze-liangrong territory. Jurui- nang (Liangtong/Liamtong) was also born in this region, though during his lifetime no evidence of renewed conflict with other hill tribes was recorded.
The fertile soil, rich biodiversity, majestic mountain ranges, perennial rivers, and temperate climate sustained the Zeliang- rong ancestors, enabling them to live in relative peace and prosperity in the region for centuries. The society flourished once more, much as it had in Makuilongdi, regarded as the cradle of Zeliangrong culture. However, this long-standing harmony was violently disrupted by the incursion of Kuki migrants—described in historical accounts as a wandering people who first appeared in Manipur between 1830 and 1840, though related groups had long been subjects of the Raja of Manipur—who forcibly invaded and destroyed Zeliangrong settlements.
Zeliangrong history in that era was fundamentally village-based. They practiced a republican form of governance in which each village functioned as an autonomous State. Deeply attached to their villages, the people seldom abandoned their ancestral sites, for these lands were sacred to them—containing the graves of their forefathers. Their communal life was vibrant and spiritually rooted, but interaction between villages was limited. Suspicion and envy often characterized inter- village relations, and the darkness of mistrust prevailed beyond the village perimeters.
Frequent ‘Shangnah Rih’ (inter-village feuds) led to disunity and the absence of coordinated defense or solidarity among Zeliangrong settlements. This internal discord provided an opportunity for the nomadic Kuki clans to exert incursion over Zeliangrong territories. Many villages were burned, and countless lives were lost.
Villages that were destroyed, deserted, or renamed during the Kuki penetration and occasional Lushai raids include Daluan as Daron/Khanpi (Thadou), Montha Kaidai as Phaizang (Gangte/Vaiphei), Montha Kaithi (Gangte), Lungtan as Songpibung (Gangte), Ningthi Sanlangthen (deserted), Laolongpung as Lailong (Haokip), Pungsaanmei as Phaibung, Dongkang as Bartubung (Thadou), Napphao as Napphou (Haokip), Julon/Majumron or Koureilon (Haokip), Thangaang as Nathenbok (Haokip), Rongsoutao as Phaikholum (Thadou), Jinthiang (Chiru), Chaang Khek as Santing, Lungchi (deserted), Phainaditiang as Mirongmun (Simte), Raangkat (deserted), Lungnulong (deserted), Kaingumgailong, Longdai-jang, Neikanlong, Duilumlong, Jadimlong, Kanailong as Aina, Chakaang as Seichang, Chinglangmei, Longsai (Chiru), Taodaijang as Songsang (Singson), Sangkao (deserted), Amang Goikhaotiang as Konlhian, Dangkhonglong as Thei-rikpal, Kaimaenglaeng, Changkaibut, Lamri, Tan-long, Khathipang, Chapang as Noupanglon (Thadou), Sinainham, Monphei, Mongang, Tharon, Anen-khundi, Taoliam, Lung- noibut, Maidung Kadang, Tingpui, Peiliam/Peika-saothao as Munlian, Ching- tiang, Tenglong, Tingmun, and Loisihbutlong as Mamuong (Haokip).
Some of these ancient villages were later renamed when the displaced inhabitants founded new settlements, most of which are now found in the Henglep and Nungba sub-divisions of Manipur. The continuity of names reflects both a remembrance of the lost homeland and an enduring bond between the old and the new settlements. According to R Brown, Zeliangrong villages were once located at a distance of three or four days’ journey south of the present National Highway 37 (then 53), but due to the Kuki invasion and Lushai raids, these settlements were evacuated. In contemporary times, the farthest surviving villages lay only three or four hours’ journey from the highway on the southern side.
Zeliangrong tradition affirms that the southern region of Manipur was once a veritable paradise for the Zeliangrong people. Many legendary and historical culture heroes were born and perished in this region. Among the most celebrated was the romantic poet, adventurer, and singer Gairemnang of Montha—a flourishing village of the time that served as a resting point for warriors during their southern expansion and as a strategic checkpoint against Kuki and Lushai incursions in the nineteenth century. Raja Gambhir Singh of Manipur even attacked Montha in 1827. Gairemnang’s charisma and the sweet, melodious strains of his Raah (tribal violin) captivated people across the land. Folklore recounts that the fringes where the sound of his music reached experienced a sweeter taste in their Gan-kariak (edible wild leaves), and every village he visited became vibrant with life and excitement. Some Zeliangrong folk songs suggest that Gairemnang journeyed as far as Tiddim (Duidim/Duidimlong) in the Chin Hills of Burma. The heart-rending love story of Gairemnang and Guiliannei, and the tragic end of Gairemnang’s life, are still sung today. He was believed to be one of six individuals chosen by Tingwang/Tingkao Ragwang to become the Makam King, and ‘Parechiang’ was his divine name.
Equally remembered talented and graceful women of this region—Guiliannei, Gainemnei, Zilhainei, and renowned seasonal song composers such as Tajinpei of Lungnulong, Gaichongnei of Daluan, Khujamnei of Jinthiang, Donsingnei of Dongkang, and Shingak, whose poetic legacies continue to enrich Zeliangrong oral culture.
Zeliangrong mythology also recalls the lawgiver Amang/Amangbou, from Daluan (Daron), known for his adjudication duties to all living beings who attended the great feast of Kariudungbo/Joubhubo/Jouruhmei organized by him. Guided by his sister’s wisdom, Amangbou became the world’s richest man, married the daughter of a deity, and attained immortality. To this day, the Zeliangrong people visit the cave believed to have been his dwelling in Daluan (Daron), now located in the Henglep Sub-division of Churachandpur District, Manipur.
The Moirang Kangleiron also records a notable Zeliangrong historical personality—Ramngampou or Parapu (known to the Meiteis as Kabui Salang Maiba), a gifted and generous healer from Ningthi (Salangthel)—in some accounts, Tingpui—of this region. His role is immortalized in the Manipuri epic Khamba and Thoibi. Ramngampou’s name endures in ballads and hymns still recited by Meitei priests and medicine men, some of whom continue to use incantations composed by him in the Zeliangrong dialect. He was both guardian and protector of Khamba and his sister Khamnu, supporting Khamba morally and physically during his contest with a nobleman for the hand of Princess Thoibi—a challenge Khamba ultimately won.
The vast territory discovered and cultivated by the sweat and blood of the Zeliangrong ancestors was eventually seized by outsiders. Intruders became settlers, while the indigenous people were pushed out of their ancestral domains. Even today, the deserted villages of the southern region retain megaliths and relics that stand as silent witnesses to Zeliangrong habitation. During that era, Zeliangrong villages existed as independent units, each cherishing its autonomy. They never conceived of forming a common political entity, and consequently, they failed to defend their sacred lands. Many thus abandoned their homes, migrating in multiple directions. Some groups crossed the Duigai (Duilun or Duirih, Tuivai/Tipai) River into Mizoram (Lushai Hills), others moved into the borderlands of Bangladesh and Meghalaya, while the remaining groups retraced the ancient routes of their forefathers.
The Zeliangrong forefathers expanded their domain with courage and fortitude, seeking new lands for their descendants to inherit. The scenic grandeur of the mountain ranges, the cool, refreshing breezes, the melodious chorus of wild creatures, and the gentle murmurs of the rivers gradually faded as they journeyed farther and farther, uncertain of ever returning, amid the perils posed by incoming peoples. The rights over their vast and fertile forest lands were abruptly usurped by nomadic groups, whose arrival brought suffering upon the natives and shattered their once contented existence. The joyous rhythms of seasonal festivities gave way to broken hearts and the lingering scent of innocent blood. For the Zeliangrong Nagas, the land where one’s placenta is buried signifies belonging; thus, countless placentas and the sacred remains of their ancestors still lie unattended in the south-western region, silent witnesses to their departure and loss.
The principal causes for the loss of the south-western Zeliangrong territory during the latter half of the nineteenth century were:
1. Kuki invasion – the Kukis, unable to withstand the Lushais’ pressure entered Zeliangrong territory in search of cultivable land and settlement;
2. Policies of the British authorities and the Meitei Raja – both encouraged Kuki habitation as a strategic means to consolidate their political interests.
Furthermore, the inter-village feuds among Zeliangrong settlements greatly weakened their unity, allowing aggressors to exert firm influence. Some Zeliangrong villages that came under Kuki domination were forced to pay a Chengshiou (a form of tax). Although this was not an acknowledgment of subservience, it was a pragmatic measure to avoid hostilities. The tribute was usually paid in paddy. At times, it consisted of animal flesh taken from the back of beasts sacrificed during festivals.
After enduring uncountable atrocities at the hands of the Kukis, the British authorities, and the Meiteis, a transformation gradually occurred in the Zeliangrong consciousness during the Kuki Rebellion (1917-1919). In the late 1920s, a young mystic leader, Haipou Jadonang, emerged. Deeply moved by the sufferings of his people, he launched a socio-religious movement aimed at uniting the Zeliangrong people of kindred tribes, reforming the primordial faith, and protecting traditional customs and culture. Jadonang believed that emotional and spiritual integration could only be achieved through religion, as faith governed the moral and social fabric of individual lives. Through the introduction of the reformed religion Charaa Rek, Jadonang sparked a profound transformation among the Zeliangrong people, laying the groundwork for a political awakening. He envisioned the restoration of freedom and dignity to the people. He rekindled the long-lost bond of oneness and revived the ancient dream of unity and self-determination—a dream later continued by Rani Gaidinliu, his spiritual and political successor.
Today, that aspiration of living together under one roof appears far more attainable than in the past provided the Zeliangrong people remain steadfast in solidarity. The past lessons must serve as a guiding flame for collective progress. The territorial threat from external forces will continue to linger unless neighboring communities renounce their political pursuits of expansion and nation- building. The Zeliangrong people, therefore, must draw strength from their shared past and unwaveringly uphold the unity and spirit of their ancestors to safeguard the legacy entrusted to them.
The writer is a Social Worker based at New Delhi