Behaviour, psychology and society
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Achom Lamnganba, Soram Athoi Chanu, Satish Leishangthem, Mohammad Hussain Rather
The actions of both humans and animals are profoundly rooted in physiological mechanisms that dictate everything from basic survival instincts to complex social interactions. Every action , emotion and behavior an individual portrays reflects one's psycho- logical processes within their mind. Similarly, in a culturally assimilated society, the collective mindset of the population acts as a powerful force that shapes much of its future social and psychological development.
Veterinary Behavioral Physiology
From fundamental survival mechanisms to com- plex learning processes, our behavior is deeply rooted in neurochemical, hormonal, and environmental interactions. By examining some of the biological imperatives, we can better under- stand what shapes both animal welfare and human-animal social dynamics.
Feeding
Feeding behavior in animals is widely studied as it is a sign of health, means of converting into agricultural products like meat or hair and also the obesity problems in companion animals. In fact, one of the first signs of most diseases is anorexia. Satiety is heavily regulated by the gastrointestinal tract through physical mechanisms, such as stretch receptors monitoring gastric fill, and humoral signals, like the release of cholecystokinin (CCK). This peptide hormone, triggered by digestive breakdown products, communicates with the brain via vagal nerves to suppress the urge to eat.
The excess of nutrients from foods which are not used immediately are converted into fats and stored in adipose tissue. To prevent this process to go on forever, leptin hormone is synthesized in the adipose tissue which updates the status of fat reserves to the brain, suppressing appetite-stimulating neuro trans- mitters like neuro-peptide Y (NPY) and increasing metabolic heat loss. This system is functional in almost all domestic species. Environmental and psychological factors, such as ambient temperature and food palatability, also heavily influence these regulatory systems. For instance, exposure to highly palatable foods results in less sensitivity to the feedback systems, like leptin that can inhibit feeding. It is also true on the part of pet owners to worry about post- spaying obesity, as sex hormones like estrogen naturally suppress appetite and increase metabolic rate in intact pets like dogs.
Sexual Behavior
Sexual behavior is influenced by both organiza- tional and activational effects of androgens. Orga- nizational effects occur during fetal life, when testos- terone permanently mascu-linizes the brain and establishes male behavioral patterns. Activational effects occur in adulthood, where testosterone promotes normal male sexual beha-viour. Female sexual behavior includes procep-tive behavior (attraction to the male) and receptive behaviour (acceptance of mounting), primarily regulated by estrogen and pro- gesterone. External stimuli such as pheromones may further modify sexual responses.
Learning
Learning involves short-term and long-term me- mory. Short-term memory depends on synaptic neurotransmitter activity, whereas long-term memory requires protein synthesis and formation of new synaptic connections. Major forms of learning in animals include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, conditioned taste aversion and spatial learning. In classical condi- tioning, an animal learns to associate one stimulus with another. Operant conditioning occurs when behavior is modified by rewards or consequences. Conditioned taste aversion develops when an animal avoids a food associated with illness. Spatial learning enables animals to recognize their surroundings and remember routes, helping them adapt to their environment.
Circadian Rhythms
Circadian rhythms are endogenous biological rhythms with a periodicity of approximately 24 hours and are synchronized mainly by light, the principal zeitgeber (environ- mental cue). The circadian pacemaker is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypotha-lamus, which regulates pineal melatonin secretion. These rhythms influence hormone secretion, metabolism, behavior and repro- ductive activity in domestic animals.
Maternal Behavior
Maternal care is heavily reliant on hormonal cascades. Near the end term of pregnancy, a strict hormonal shift occurs where progesterone levels decrease and estrogen levels increase and the offspring physically passes through the birth canal nearing parturition. This causes intense vaginal-cervical stimulation that triggers the immediate release of oxytocin from hypothalamus where the axons of the hypothalamic cells transport it to i) pituitary and ii) directly to the olfactory bulb.
(To be contd)
The actions of both humans and animals are profoundly rooted in physiological mechanisms that dictate everything from basic survival instincts to complex social interactions. Every action , emotion and behavior an individual portrays reflects one's psycho- logical processes within their mind. Similarly, in a culturally assimilated society, the collective mindset of the population acts as a powerful force that shapes much of its future social and psychological development.
Veterinary Behavioral Physiology
From fundamental survival mechanisms to com- plex learning processes, our behavior is deeply rooted in neurochemical, hormonal, and environmental interactions. By examining some of the biological imperatives, we can better under- stand what shapes both animal welfare and human-animal social dynamics.
Feeding
Feeding behavior in animals is widely studied as it is a sign of health, means of converting into agricultural products like meat or hair and also the obesity problems in companion animals. In fact, one of the first signs of most diseases is anorexia. Satiety is heavily regulated by the gastrointestinal tract through physical mechanisms, such as stretch receptors monitoring gastric fill, and humoral signals, like the release of cholecystokinin (CCK). This peptide hormone, triggered by digestive breakdown products, communicates with the brain via vagal nerves to suppress the urge to eat.
The excess of nutrients from foods which are not used immediately are converted into fats and stored in adipose tissue. To prevent this process to go on forever, leptin hormone is synthesized in the adipose tissue which updates the status of fat reserves to the brain, suppressing appetite-stimulating neuro trans- mitters like neuro-peptide Y (NPY) and increasing metabolic heat loss. This system is functional in almost all domestic species. Environmental and psychological factors, such as ambient temperature and food palatability, also heavily influence these regulatory systems. For instance, exposure to highly palatable foods results in less sensitivity to the feedback systems, like leptin that can inhibit feeding. It is also true on the part of pet owners to worry about post- spaying obesity, as sex hormones like estrogen naturally suppress appetite and increase metabolic rate in intact pets like dogs.
Sexual Behavior
Sexual behavior is influenced by both organiza- tional and activational effects of androgens. Orga- nizational effects occur during fetal life, when testos- terone permanently mascu-linizes the brain and establishes male behavioral patterns. Activational effects occur in adulthood, where testosterone promotes normal male sexual beha-viour. Female sexual behavior includes procep-tive behavior (attraction to the male) and receptive behaviour (acceptance of mounting), primarily regulated by estrogen and pro- gesterone. External stimuli such as pheromones may further modify sexual responses.
Learning
Learning involves short-term and long-term me- mory. Short-term memory depends on synaptic neurotransmitter activity, whereas long-term memory requires protein synthesis and formation of new synaptic connections. Major forms of learning in animals include classical conditioning, operant conditioning, conditioned taste aversion and spatial learning. In classical condi- tioning, an animal learns to associate one stimulus with another. Operant conditioning occurs when behavior is modified by rewards or consequences. Conditioned taste aversion develops when an animal avoids a food associated with illness. Spatial learning enables animals to recognize their surroundings and remember routes, helping them adapt to their environment.
Circadian Rhythms
Circadian rhythms are endogenous biological rhythms with a periodicity of approximately 24 hours and are synchronized mainly by light, the principal zeitgeber (environ- mental cue). The circadian pacemaker is located in the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypotha-lamus, which regulates pineal melatonin secretion. These rhythms influence hormone secretion, metabolism, behavior and repro- ductive activity in domestic animals.
Maternal Behavior
Maternal care is heavily reliant on hormonal cascades. Near the end term of pregnancy, a strict hormonal shift occurs where progesterone levels decrease and estrogen levels increase and the offspring physically passes through the birth canal nearing parturition. This causes intense vaginal-cervical stimulation that triggers the immediate release of oxytocin from hypothalamus where the axons of the hypothalamic cells transport it to i) pituitary and ii) directly to the olfactory bulb.
(To be contd)