Behaviour, psychology and society
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Achom Lamnganba, Soram Athoi Chanu, Satish Leishangthem, Mohammad Hussain Rather
Contd from previous issue
Once oxytocin reaches this bulb, it stimulates the local release of dopamine. This local dopamine surge initiates a highly sensitive period during which the mother learns to identify the specific smell of her offspring as her own. Genetics also play a powerful role in maternal success. For example, certain specific genetic families of Arabian mares are highly prone to rejecting their foals. These specific lines of horses naturally possess lower levels of progesterone than normal mares before giving birth (prepartum). Again, a female's history with mother- hood heavily dictates her behavior. Most cases of rejection and abnormal maternal actions occur in primiparous females (first-time mothers). Going through the physical experience of having an offspring rewires the mother's brain, resulting in less fear of the newborn and better nursing behavior.
Welfare and Problems
As the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham famously noted: "It is not whether animals can think, but rather can they feel?”. Animals actually feel and perceive pain so they actively avoid painful stimuli. They also possess strong social recognition; sheep can recognise other sheep’s faces and tell familiar from unfamiliar ones. However, no domestic species can recognise themselves in a mirror; instead, they treat their reflection as a conspecific. Also, domestic animals may not be insightful and make novel use of objects or abstract information although the trait is known in monkeys, apes and parrots. Out of the various behavioral problems in animals like aggressiveness in dogs, spraying in cats, fearfulness is a deeply embedded genetic trait. It is perhaps the only behavioral characteristic that can be reliably measured in young puppies to predict their adult temperament.
Welfare is the state of well-being brought about by meeting the physiological, environmental, nutritional, behavioral and social needs of the animal. A stereotypic behavior is a repetitive, apparently functionless beha- vior commonly indicating a poor, restrictive environment. Classic examples are tongue rolling in cattle, stall walking in horses, constant barking in dogs. Animals exhibiting such may actually be performing them as an internal coping mechanism to help them adapt better to a poor environment. Therefore, the handler should change the environment rather than punishing or physically preventing the behavior.
Human Behavior - the psychological functions that shape us
Different individuals react differently to the same situation, like one can stay calm and focus under pressure and another becomes anxious, stressed and unable to focus. Behavior isn't a constant action; it differs from situations to situations and from one person to the other. It is not determined by a single factor rather by different components: emotions, external stimuli, environment, learning expe- rience, hormones, brain activity etc.
Emotions, from excitement and happiness to sadness and sorrow, shape human behavior. Emotions and behavior occur simultaneously. Emotions drive our physical and psychological urges, while behavior is the conscious action chosen in response. Different forms of emotions shape the outcome of behavior as for instance Fear may lead to the avoidance behavior , it activates the "fight or flight" response; Anger leads to the aggressive behavior, uncontrollable actions, physical harm to themselves as well as to others; Sadness leads to disappointment , isolation; Happiness leads to positive mindset, improves interpersonal relationships etc.
Behaviorism, one of the most prominent schools of psychology founded by John B Watson states that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the external stimuli or environment. Behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner, Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov believe behaviors as observable and measurable actions rather than internal mental states like thoughts, feelings or consciousness. The Classical Conditioning by Pavlov explains how we learned through associations between different stimuli. It happens when a naturally occurring involuntary response linked with the previously neutral trigger-smelling of a delicious food makes us feeling hungry and salivated despite the actual food is present, checking our smartphones as soon as we hear the notifications sound, seeing injections can cause tense; heart-beat faster and shivering because we associate it with past pain experiences. Therapists used counter-conditioning technique in phobia treatments - Cynophobia; fear of dogs - to overcome this, therapists might first create a hierarchy of fear 1) showing dog pictures, 2) showing videos of a calm and cute dog 3) standing some feet away from a real dog 4) approaching to the dog by slightly petting them. Through this hierarchical exposure of the triggered stimulus to the phobic individuals, they might over- come their fear response or behavior. Thera- pists can also use aversion techniques for substance addiction by repeatedly pairing the maladaptive behavior like alcoholism with an unpleasant stimulus (nausea and vomiting). The brain learns to associate these maladaptive or undesirable habits with a negative, unpleasant reflex or outcomes like that of nausea and vomiting, reducing the urge to do the behavior again in the future. For alcoholic patients, the-rapists mainly prescribed Disulfiram medication which causes severe nausea when consuming the alcohol.
Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner explains how individuals' behavior is influenced through reinforcement and punishment. Both negative and positive reinforcement strengthens the behavior and punishment weakens the behavior. Positive reinforcement strengthens the behavior by adding a rewarding stimulus after the action or task has finished. For example, giving the child his favorite chocolate after finishing his homework. It motivates the individual to complete the tasks. Negative reinforcement strengthens the behavior by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus. For example, applying sunscreen lotion to our body to avoid sunburn, knowing its results reinforces the individual to apply sunscreen daily. Punishment can also be positive and negative. Positive punishment weakens the behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus imme- diately after an undesirable behavior to reduce it from occurring in the future. For example, parents scolding a child for misbehaving with the elders. Negative punishment weakens the behavior by removing away the stimulus to decrease unwanted behavior. For exam- ple, taking away the favorite toys of the child for not studying. This action helps the child to finish their study on time in future. Behaviorism explains how human behavior is processed and acquired through different learning processes such as conditioning, reinforcement and punishment and it also gives the importance of environmental influences in shaping the behavior.
Combined force of Behavior
Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim argued that human thought evolves through different stages in response to changing social conditions. According to Comte, this evolution progresses from the Theological (Supernatural) Stage to the Metaphysical (Abstract) Stage, and finally to the Positive (Scientific) Stage. Each stage possesses its own distinctive values, beliefs, moral codes, and ways of life.
At any given point in history, the collective actions and behavior of a population significantly influence the character of its society. For example, a society may have a large number of talented individuals engaged in classical dance, fine arts, and other artistic pursuits. However, if the prevailing customs and traditions fail to accept, encourage, or support these artists, their talents remain undervalued. Such a situation reflects a collective mindset that is resistant to artistic expression and reveals the rigid cultural norms of that particular society.
This demonstrates how social attitudes are often shaped not merely by the presence of talented individuals, but by the willingness of society to recognize and nurture them. Therefore, scientific inquiry is essential for understanding collective human behavior in an objective and unbiased manner. Through systematic analysis, researchers can uncover deeper social realities, challenge assumptions, and explore dimensions of public opinion that might otherwise remain unnoticed.
The writers are with Dept. of Sociology (Master’s), Panjab University, Chandigarh; Dept. of Psychology (Master’s), PGGCG-11,PU, Chandigarh; College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry (B.V.Sc. & A.H.), CAU, Nagaland
Contd from previous issue
Once oxytocin reaches this bulb, it stimulates the local release of dopamine. This local dopamine surge initiates a highly sensitive period during which the mother learns to identify the specific smell of her offspring as her own. Genetics also play a powerful role in maternal success. For example, certain specific genetic families of Arabian mares are highly prone to rejecting their foals. These specific lines of horses naturally possess lower levels of progesterone than normal mares before giving birth (prepartum). Again, a female's history with mother- hood heavily dictates her behavior. Most cases of rejection and abnormal maternal actions occur in primiparous females (first-time mothers). Going through the physical experience of having an offspring rewires the mother's brain, resulting in less fear of the newborn and better nursing behavior.
Welfare and Problems
As the British philosopher Jeremy Bentham famously noted: "It is not whether animals can think, but rather can they feel?”. Animals actually feel and perceive pain so they actively avoid painful stimuli. They also possess strong social recognition; sheep can recognise other sheep’s faces and tell familiar from unfamiliar ones. However, no domestic species can recognise themselves in a mirror; instead, they treat their reflection as a conspecific. Also, domestic animals may not be insightful and make novel use of objects or abstract information although the trait is known in monkeys, apes and parrots. Out of the various behavioral problems in animals like aggressiveness in dogs, spraying in cats, fearfulness is a deeply embedded genetic trait. It is perhaps the only behavioral characteristic that can be reliably measured in young puppies to predict their adult temperament.
Welfare is the state of well-being brought about by meeting the physiological, environmental, nutritional, behavioral and social needs of the animal. A stereotypic behavior is a repetitive, apparently functionless beha- vior commonly indicating a poor, restrictive environment. Classic examples are tongue rolling in cattle, stall walking in horses, constant barking in dogs. Animals exhibiting such may actually be performing them as an internal coping mechanism to help them adapt better to a poor environment. Therefore, the handler should change the environment rather than punishing or physically preventing the behavior.
Human Behavior - the psychological functions that shape us
Different individuals react differently to the same situation, like one can stay calm and focus under pressure and another becomes anxious, stressed and unable to focus. Behavior isn't a constant action; it differs from situations to situations and from one person to the other. It is not determined by a single factor rather by different components: emotions, external stimuli, environment, learning expe- rience, hormones, brain activity etc.
Emotions, from excitement and happiness to sadness and sorrow, shape human behavior. Emotions and behavior occur simultaneously. Emotions drive our physical and psychological urges, while behavior is the conscious action chosen in response. Different forms of emotions shape the outcome of behavior as for instance Fear may lead to the avoidance behavior , it activates the "fight or flight" response; Anger leads to the aggressive behavior, uncontrollable actions, physical harm to themselves as well as to others; Sadness leads to disappointment , isolation; Happiness leads to positive mindset, improves interpersonal relationships etc.
Behaviorism, one of the most prominent schools of psychology founded by John B Watson states that all behaviors are learned through interaction with the external stimuli or environment. Behaviorists such as B.F. Skinner, Thorndike and Ivan Pavlov believe behaviors as observable and measurable actions rather than internal mental states like thoughts, feelings or consciousness. The Classical Conditioning by Pavlov explains how we learned through associations between different stimuli. It happens when a naturally occurring involuntary response linked with the previously neutral trigger-smelling of a delicious food makes us feeling hungry and salivated despite the actual food is present, checking our smartphones as soon as we hear the notifications sound, seeing injections can cause tense; heart-beat faster and shivering because we associate it with past pain experiences. Therapists used counter-conditioning technique in phobia treatments - Cynophobia; fear of dogs - to overcome this, therapists might first create a hierarchy of fear 1) showing dog pictures, 2) showing videos of a calm and cute dog 3) standing some feet away from a real dog 4) approaching to the dog by slightly petting them. Through this hierarchical exposure of the triggered stimulus to the phobic individuals, they might over- come their fear response or behavior. Thera- pists can also use aversion techniques for substance addiction by repeatedly pairing the maladaptive behavior like alcoholism with an unpleasant stimulus (nausea and vomiting). The brain learns to associate these maladaptive or undesirable habits with a negative, unpleasant reflex or outcomes like that of nausea and vomiting, reducing the urge to do the behavior again in the future. For alcoholic patients, the-rapists mainly prescribed Disulfiram medication which causes severe nausea when consuming the alcohol.
Operant Conditioning by B.F. Skinner explains how individuals' behavior is influenced through reinforcement and punishment. Both negative and positive reinforcement strengthens the behavior and punishment weakens the behavior. Positive reinforcement strengthens the behavior by adding a rewarding stimulus after the action or task has finished. For example, giving the child his favorite chocolate after finishing his homework. It motivates the individual to complete the tasks. Negative reinforcement strengthens the behavior by removing or avoiding an unpleasant stimulus. For example, applying sunscreen lotion to our body to avoid sunburn, knowing its results reinforces the individual to apply sunscreen daily. Punishment can also be positive and negative. Positive punishment weakens the behavior by adding an unpleasant stimulus imme- diately after an undesirable behavior to reduce it from occurring in the future. For example, parents scolding a child for misbehaving with the elders. Negative punishment weakens the behavior by removing away the stimulus to decrease unwanted behavior. For exam- ple, taking away the favorite toys of the child for not studying. This action helps the child to finish their study on time in future. Behaviorism explains how human behavior is processed and acquired through different learning processes such as conditioning, reinforcement and punishment and it also gives the importance of environmental influences in shaping the behavior.
Combined force of Behavior
Early sociologists such as Auguste Comte and Émile Durkheim argued that human thought evolves through different stages in response to changing social conditions. According to Comte, this evolution progresses from the Theological (Supernatural) Stage to the Metaphysical (Abstract) Stage, and finally to the Positive (Scientific) Stage. Each stage possesses its own distinctive values, beliefs, moral codes, and ways of life.
At any given point in history, the collective actions and behavior of a population significantly influence the character of its society. For example, a society may have a large number of talented individuals engaged in classical dance, fine arts, and other artistic pursuits. However, if the prevailing customs and traditions fail to accept, encourage, or support these artists, their talents remain undervalued. Such a situation reflects a collective mindset that is resistant to artistic expression and reveals the rigid cultural norms of that particular society.
This demonstrates how social attitudes are often shaped not merely by the presence of talented individuals, but by the willingness of society to recognize and nurture them. Therefore, scientific inquiry is essential for understanding collective human behavior in an objective and unbiased manner. Through systematic analysis, researchers can uncover deeper social realities, challenge assumptions, and explore dimensions of public opinion that might otherwise remain unnoticed.
The writers are with Dept. of Sociology (Master’s), Panjab University, Chandigarh; Dept. of Psychology (Master’s), PGGCG-11,PU, Chandigarh; College of Veterinary Science & Animal Husbandry (B.V.Sc. & A.H.), CAU, Nagaland