Colonial policy and practice in Manipur
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Gangmumei Kamei
Contd from previous issue
The British Government did not attempt to encourage tea plantation. Once they tried to develop silk industry by involving a company from Calcutta. This plan was thought to be profitless and the proposal was dropped. The British rulers encouraged free trade towards Manipur. They encouraged external trade to be conducted by foreigners mostly those who belonged to the Marwari community. This community got favour both from the colonial authorities and Raja of Manipur. They monopolized the export of rice and import of manufactured goods. The British did not encourage industrialization.
The colonial Indian Government was influenced by certain social philosophy of the mother country. They implemented the utilitarian measures of welfare to the conquered people. The British in Manipur started with the establishment of schools both in the hills and valley of Manipur to produce petty government servants to be teachers, peons, chowki-dars, amin and vaccinators.
They provided minimum medical facilities through the establishment of dispensaries and hospitals. They were confronted with several deadly diseases like malaria, cholera and small pox which visited the State in epidemic forms. The colonial Government cons- tructed State roads.
The British Policy towards the Hill Tribes
After the British conquest of Manipur in 1891, the hill areas came under the rule of British Political Agent. The British introduced system of Indirect Rule over the hill tribes who were divided in to two major ethnic groups of the Nagas and the Kukis. Lord Lansdowne used a significant term “The Manipur people” to mean both the people of the valley and the hills.
However, the Political Agent used the term ‘Manipur’ to mean Meiteis who dwelt in the valley of Manipur.
Under the new system, the British did not rule the hill tribes directly. Like the pre-colonial rulers of Manipur they did not interfere in the affairs of the tribal villages. The Lallup system did not work in hill areas though the king imposed payment of tributes on the hill villages.
Occasionally tribal villagers were sometimes used by the king for under taking public works; straightening of the course of rivers and digging of canals. Slavery existed among the tribes in a mild form. The British introduced the hill house tax of Rs. 3/- per household per year. The chiefs or head men of the tribal villages were entrusted with the administration of their villages. The head man or the chief was to collect the hill house tax and submit to the state for which they got certain commission. In the beginning of the British rule there was no proper regulation for the administration of the hill tribes but the British Govvernment introduced the Chin Hills Regulation of 1896 to administer the hill tribes. It was quite effective. Therefore, the spirit of this regulation was adopted in Manipur as the guiding principle of hill administration.
Under the colonial system, the chief or head of the village was to collect house tax, maintain law and order and administer justice according to their customary laws. They were also made to render forced labour to the colonial authority for the construction and maintenance of bridle paths, roads and bridges. They also provided local hospitality to the touring officers, army, police and petty colonial employees. In practice, the Lallup system was de facto reimposed on the hill tribes in a more stringent form. These taxes produced anti colonial agitations.
The British laid down a policy that they were to look after the interest of the hill tribes and protect them from the operation of the administrators of the valley or the Raja. They had to act as a saviour or the protector of the hill tribes. The administration of the hill tribes was separated from that of the valley. This separation of administration on ethnic lines was greatly resented by the Raja of Manipur who was not allowed any intervention in the hill areas. Though the Political Agent was a colonial officer, the direct contact with the hill people was made by petty officials recruited from the people of the valley. For administration of the hill areas, the whole area was divided into five divisions known as Lam. The five Lams were in “the north the Mao Lam, and the Tangkhulimprisonment of 5 years and above and by the Governor in case of death. The Raja had the powers of pardon in criminal cases and revisionary powers in both civil and criminal cases subject to the approval of the Political Agent.
In 1916 when the Raja vacated the position of the President of the Durbar, the PMSD or the President of the Manipur State Durbar looked after the administration of both the hills and valley. The PMSD looked after the fiscal administration of the state and prepared budget of the State. The Manipur State Durbar attracted a large number of educated Manipuris. It provided an administrative forum in which the educated persons could get political appointments and through them the state could get legitimacy or support of the people.
The Maharaja and the British Government
The British policy was that by education and training the new ruler of Manipur would appreciate their custom, language and traditional polity with full knowledge of the princely States of India and trust in the British Empire. Churachand Singh extended help to the British which confirmed the trust reposed on him. The Manipur Raja gave help to the British while dealing with the Abor Expedition in Eastern Himalayas (1911) and troubles in Sadiya. During the World War I (1914 -1919) Manipur Maharaja extended help to the British in form of Double Company of Manipuri soldiers, 2000 labour, ambulance and a war plane.
Lam includes the hills along the north east of the valley, south of the Tangkhul country was the Tammu Lam; the Moirang Lam was in the south west corners of the state and the Kapui (Kabui) Lam to the west of the valley”
Five Lam subedars for the five divisions. Under one Lam subedar, 7 Lambus were appointed for a division. The Lambu in the pre-colonial Meitei monarchy was an important petty official for the rural areas. Under the colonial system, the Lambu was an interpreter, a process server and a peon combined in one. Its counterpart in the Naga hills was the Dobashi or the interpreter. The Lambu was employed in all aspects of the colonial administration, keeping the law and order, administration of justice, supervision of public works. He was the ear and eye of the Government. During the period of British direct management of Manipur (1891-1906) the Lambus oppressed the people. The British rule ensured law and order; peace was maintained, taxes were collected, justice was administered. The hill people suffered greatly; they could not bear the financial burden of the house tax. The monetization of the economy by the introduction of the house tax was to the great hardship of the hill tribe who never experienced such suffering under the pre-colonial rule.
In 1907 when the administration was handed over to Raja Churachand Singh, The Political Agent continued to administer the hill tribes. The objective of the British policy was to prevent the traditional operation and exploitation of the hill tribes by the Raja and his government and to protect the hill tribe. They kept peace, prevented internal tribal feuds and warfare among the Nagas and Kukis and inter societal conflicts and imposed tax to meet the cost of administration. They maintained roads and bridges along the main roads from Imphal to neighbouring districts. The claim of the British which was to protect the tribal people was not translated in the ground level. In reality the British rule through the Lambus was oppressive.
In 1913, there was a reorganization of the State Durbar. The Raja ceased to be the President. One British ICS officer was appointed as the President. Not the Durbar but the President in his own discretion was entrusted to administer the hill area under the overall supervision of the Political Agent. In fact, the President of the Durbar popularly known as the PMSD, with his office at the capital town of Imphal was an overburdened officer of the state. He did not have officers to assist him. He could not go on tour in the hills. He depended on the Lambus and the Lamsubedars.
The British imposed forced labour known as Potthang Begari and Potthang Senkhai. Very frequently, the tribal labour was subjected to physical torture. There were eighteen British PMSDs between 1913-1947. among them were distinguished names like J.C. Higgins, Christopher Gimson, C.S. Mullan, Captain C.W.L. Harvey, G.P. Stewart and F.F. Pearson.
There were loopholes in the administration of he hill tribes.
(To be contd)
Contd from previous issue
The British Government did not attempt to encourage tea plantation. Once they tried to develop silk industry by involving a company from Calcutta. This plan was thought to be profitless and the proposal was dropped. The British rulers encouraged free trade towards Manipur. They encouraged external trade to be conducted by foreigners mostly those who belonged to the Marwari community. This community got favour both from the colonial authorities and Raja of Manipur. They monopolized the export of rice and import of manufactured goods. The British did not encourage industrialization.
The colonial Indian Government was influenced by certain social philosophy of the mother country. They implemented the utilitarian measures of welfare to the conquered people. The British in Manipur started with the establishment of schools both in the hills and valley of Manipur to produce petty government servants to be teachers, peons, chowki-dars, amin and vaccinators.
They provided minimum medical facilities through the establishment of dispensaries and hospitals. They were confronted with several deadly diseases like malaria, cholera and small pox which visited the State in epidemic forms. The colonial Government cons- tructed State roads.
The British Policy towards the Hill Tribes
After the British conquest of Manipur in 1891, the hill areas came under the rule of British Political Agent. The British introduced system of Indirect Rule over the hill tribes who were divided in to two major ethnic groups of the Nagas and the Kukis. Lord Lansdowne used a significant term “The Manipur people” to mean both the people of the valley and the hills.
However, the Political Agent used the term ‘Manipur’ to mean Meiteis who dwelt in the valley of Manipur.
Under the new system, the British did not rule the hill tribes directly. Like the pre-colonial rulers of Manipur they did not interfere in the affairs of the tribal villages. The Lallup system did not work in hill areas though the king imposed payment of tributes on the hill villages.
Occasionally tribal villagers were sometimes used by the king for under taking public works; straightening of the course of rivers and digging of canals. Slavery existed among the tribes in a mild form. The British introduced the hill house tax of Rs. 3/- per household per year. The chiefs or head men of the tribal villages were entrusted with the administration of their villages. The head man or the chief was to collect the hill house tax and submit to the state for which they got certain commission. In the beginning of the British rule there was no proper regulation for the administration of the hill tribes but the British Govvernment introduced the Chin Hills Regulation of 1896 to administer the hill tribes. It was quite effective. Therefore, the spirit of this regulation was adopted in Manipur as the guiding principle of hill administration.
Under the colonial system, the chief or head of the village was to collect house tax, maintain law and order and administer justice according to their customary laws. They were also made to render forced labour to the colonial authority for the construction and maintenance of bridle paths, roads and bridges. They also provided local hospitality to the touring officers, army, police and petty colonial employees. In practice, the Lallup system was de facto reimposed on the hill tribes in a more stringent form. These taxes produced anti colonial agitations.
The British laid down a policy that they were to look after the interest of the hill tribes and protect them from the operation of the administrators of the valley or the Raja. They had to act as a saviour or the protector of the hill tribes. The administration of the hill tribes was separated from that of the valley. This separation of administration on ethnic lines was greatly resented by the Raja of Manipur who was not allowed any intervention in the hill areas. Though the Political Agent was a colonial officer, the direct contact with the hill people was made by petty officials recruited from the people of the valley. For administration of the hill areas, the whole area was divided into five divisions known as Lam. The five Lams were in “the north the Mao Lam, and the Tangkhulimprisonment of 5 years and above and by the Governor in case of death. The Raja had the powers of pardon in criminal cases and revisionary powers in both civil and criminal cases subject to the approval of the Political Agent.
In 1916 when the Raja vacated the position of the President of the Durbar, the PMSD or the President of the Manipur State Durbar looked after the administration of both the hills and valley. The PMSD looked after the fiscal administration of the state and prepared budget of the State. The Manipur State Durbar attracted a large number of educated Manipuris. It provided an administrative forum in which the educated persons could get political appointments and through them the state could get legitimacy or support of the people.
The Maharaja and the British Government
The British policy was that by education and training the new ruler of Manipur would appreciate their custom, language and traditional polity with full knowledge of the princely States of India and trust in the British Empire. Churachand Singh extended help to the British which confirmed the trust reposed on him. The Manipur Raja gave help to the British while dealing with the Abor Expedition in Eastern Himalayas (1911) and troubles in Sadiya. During the World War I (1914 -1919) Manipur Maharaja extended help to the British in form of Double Company of Manipuri soldiers, 2000 labour, ambulance and a war plane.
Lam includes the hills along the north east of the valley, south of the Tangkhul country was the Tammu Lam; the Moirang Lam was in the south west corners of the state and the Kapui (Kabui) Lam to the west of the valley”
Five Lam subedars for the five divisions. Under one Lam subedar, 7 Lambus were appointed for a division. The Lambu in the pre-colonial Meitei monarchy was an important petty official for the rural areas. Under the colonial system, the Lambu was an interpreter, a process server and a peon combined in one. Its counterpart in the Naga hills was the Dobashi or the interpreter. The Lambu was employed in all aspects of the colonial administration, keeping the law and order, administration of justice, supervision of public works. He was the ear and eye of the Government. During the period of British direct management of Manipur (1891-1906) the Lambus oppressed the people. The British rule ensured law and order; peace was maintained, taxes were collected, justice was administered. The hill people suffered greatly; they could not bear the financial burden of the house tax. The monetization of the economy by the introduction of the house tax was to the great hardship of the hill tribe who never experienced such suffering under the pre-colonial rule.
In 1907 when the administration was handed over to Raja Churachand Singh, The Political Agent continued to administer the hill tribes. The objective of the British policy was to prevent the traditional operation and exploitation of the hill tribes by the Raja and his government and to protect the hill tribe. They kept peace, prevented internal tribal feuds and warfare among the Nagas and Kukis and inter societal conflicts and imposed tax to meet the cost of administration. They maintained roads and bridges along the main roads from Imphal to neighbouring districts. The claim of the British which was to protect the tribal people was not translated in the ground level. In reality the British rule through the Lambus was oppressive.
In 1913, there was a reorganization of the State Durbar. The Raja ceased to be the President. One British ICS officer was appointed as the President. Not the Durbar but the President in his own discretion was entrusted to administer the hill area under the overall supervision of the Political Agent. In fact, the President of the Durbar popularly known as the PMSD, with his office at the capital town of Imphal was an overburdened officer of the state. He did not have officers to assist him. He could not go on tour in the hills. He depended on the Lambus and the Lamsubedars.
The British imposed forced labour known as Potthang Begari and Potthang Senkhai. Very frequently, the tribal labour was subjected to physical torture. There were eighteen British PMSDs between 1913-1947. among them were distinguished names like J.C. Higgins, Christopher Gimson, C.S. Mullan, Captain C.W.L. Harvey, G.P. Stewart and F.F. Pearson.
There were loopholes in the administration of he hill tribes.
(To be contd)